Can My Home Computer Gie Virus to Another Computer on Same Internet Cinnection

Network that allows computers to share resource and communicate with each other

A computer network is a set of computers sharing resources located on or provided by network nodes. The computers use common communication protocols over digital interconnections to communicate with each other. These interconnections are fabricated up of telecommunications network technologies, based on physically wired, optical, and wireless radio-frequency methods that may be bundled in a multifariousness of network topologies.

The nodes of a reckoner network may include personal computers, servers, networking hardware, or other specialised or general-purpose hosts. They are identified by network addresses, and may accept hostnames. Hostnames serve equally memorable labels for the nodes, rarely changed after initial assignment. Network addresses serve for locating and identifying the nodes past communication protocols such as the Net Protocol.

Computer networks may exist classified by many criteria, including the transmission medium used to carry signals, bandwidth, communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network size, the topology, traffic control mechanism, and organizational intent.

Computer networks support many applications and services, such as admission to the World Wide Web, digital video, digital audio, shared use of application and storage servers, printers, and fax machines, and use of e-mail and instant messaging applications.

History [edit]

Reckoner networking may be considered a branch of informatics, computer engineering, and telecommunication, since information technology relies on the theoretical and practical awarding of the related disciplines. Computer networking was influenced by a wide assortment of technology developments and historical milestones.

• In the late 1950s, a network of computers was built for the U.S. armed services Semi-Automated Ground Surroundings (SAGE) radar system using the Bell 101 modem. It was the first commercial modem for computers, released by AT&T Corporation in 1958. The modem allowed digital data to exist transmitted over regular unconditioned phone lines at a speed of 110 bits per 2nd (bit/south).
• In 1959, Christopher Strachey filed a patent application for time-sharing and John McCarthy initiated the first project to implement time-sharing of user programs at MIT.^{[1] [two] [three] [4]} Stratchey passed the concept on to J. C. R. Licklider at the inaugural UNESCO Information Processing Conference in Paris that year.^[five] McCarthy was instrumental in the cosmos of iii of the primeval fourth dimension-sharing systems (Compatible Time-Sharing Organization in 1961, BBN Time-Sharing Organisation in 1962, and Dartmouth Time Sharing System in 1963).
• In 1959, Anatoly Kitov proposed to the Cardinal Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union a detailed plan for the re-organisation of the command of the Soviet war machine and of the Soviet economic system on the basis of a network of computing centres.^[6] Kitov's proposal was rejected, as later was the 1962 OGAS economy management network project.^[7]
• In 1960, the commercial airline reservation organization semi-automated business research surround (SABRE) went online with 2 connected mainframes.
• In 1963, J. C. R. Licklider sent a memorandum to office colleagues discussing the concept of the "Intergalactic Computer Network", a computer network intended to allow general communications among figurer users.
• Throughout the 1960s, Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently developed the concept of bundle switching to transfer information between computers over a network.^{[8] [9] [x]} Davies pioneered the implementation of the concept. The NPL network, a local expanse network at the National Physical Laboratory (Uk) used a line speed of 768 kbit/s and afterwards high-speed T1 links (i.544 Mbit/south line rate).^{[11] [12] [xiii]}
• In 1965, Western Electric introduced the first widely used phone switch that implemented computer control in the switching fabric.
• In 1969, the first iv nodes of the ARPANET were connected using fifty kbit/s circuits between the University of California at Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Institute, the Academy of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah.^[fourteen] In the early 1970s, Leonard Kleinrock carried out mathematical work to model the performance of package-switched networks, which underpinned the development of the ARPANET.^{[fifteen] [16]} His theoretical work on hierarchical routing in the tardily 1970s with pupil Farouk Kamoun remains disquisitional to the operation of the Internet today.
• In 1972, commercial services were beginning deployed on public data networks in Europe,^{[17] [18] [19]} which began using 10.25 in the tardily 1970s and spread across the globe.^[eleven] The underlying infrastructure was used for expanding TCP/IP networks in the 1980s.^[20]
• In 1973, the French CYCLADES network was the starting time to make the hosts responsible for the reliable commitment of information, rather than this existence a centralized service of the network itself.^[21]
• In 1973, Robert Metcalfe wrote a formal memo at Xerox PARC describing Ethernet, a networking arrangement that was based on the Aloha network, developed in the 1960s by Norman Abramson and colleagues at the University of Hawaii. In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published their paper "Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks"^[22] and collaborated on several patents received in 1977 and 1978.
• In 1974, Vint Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine published the Manual Command Protocol (TCP) specification, RFC 675, coining the term Internet equally a autograph for internetworking.^[23]
• In 1976, John White potato of Datapoint Corporation created ARCNET, a token-passing network kickoff used to share storage devices.
• In 1977, the first long-distance fiber network was deployed past GTE in Long Beach, California.
• In 1977, Xerox Network Systems (XNS) was developed by Robert Metcalfe and Yogen Dalal at Xerox.^[24]
• In 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open up standard.^[25]
• In 1980, Ethernet was upgraded from the original 2.94 Mbit/s protocol to the 10 Mbit/s protocol, which was developed by Ron Crane, Bob Garner, Roy Ogus,^[26] and Yogen Dalal.^[27]
• In 1995, the manual speed chapters for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s. By 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of 1 Gbit/s. Afterward, higher speeds of up to 400 Gbit/s were added (every bit of 2018^[update]). The scaling of Ethernet has been a contributing factor to its continued apply.^[25]

Use [edit]

A estimator network extends interpersonal communications by electronic means with various technologies, such as email, instant messaging, online chat, voice and video telephone calls, and video conferencing. A network allows sharing of network and computing resources. Users may access and use resources provided past devices on the network, such as printing a certificate on a shared network printer or utilize of a shared storage device. A network allows sharing of files, information, and other types of data giving authorized users the ability to access information stored on other computers on the network. Distributed calculating uses computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks.

Network bundle [edit]

Well-nigh modern estimator networks apply protocols based on packet-fashion transmission. A network parcel is a formatted unit of measurement of information carried by a packet-switched network.

Packets consist of ii types of data: control data and user data (payload). The control data provides data the network needs to deliver the user information, for example, source and destination network addresses, error detection codes, and sequencing information. Typically, control data is found in parcel headers and trailers, with payload information in between.

With packets, the bandwidth of the transmission medium can be better shared among users than if the network were circuit switched. When ane user is non sending packets, the link can be filled with packets from other users, and so the cost tin be shared, with relatively little interference, provided the link isn't overused. Ofttimes the route a packet needs to take through a network is not immediately available. In that case, the packet is queued and waits until a link is free.

The physical link technologies of packet network typically limit the size of packets to a certain maximum transmission unit (MTU). A longer message may be fragmented before it is transferred and one time the packets go far, they are reassembled to construct the original message.

Network topology [edit]

Common network topologies

The physical or geographic locations of network nodes and links mostly have relatively footling event on a network, but the topology of interconnections of a network can significantly affect its throughput and reliability. With many technologies, such as bus or star networks, a single failure can cause the network to fail entirely. In general, the more than interconnections at that place are, the more than robust the network is; merely the more expensive it is to install. Therefore nearly network diagrams are bundled by their network topology which is the map of logical interconnections of network hosts.

Common layouts are:

• Bus network: all nodes are continued to a common medium forth this medium. This was the layout used in the original Ethernet, called 10BASE5 and 10BASE2. This is still a common topology on the information link layer, although modernistic physical layer variants utilize betoken-to-bespeak links instead, forming a star or a tree.
• Star network: all nodes are continued to a special central node. This is the typical layout constitute in a pocket-size switched Ethernet LAN, where each customer connects to a central network switch, and logically in a wireless LAN, where each wireless client associates with the fundamental wireless access indicate.
• Ring network: each node is connected to its left and correct neighbour node, such that all nodes are connected and that each node can attain each other node by traversing nodes left- or rightwards. Token ring networks, and the Cobweb Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), made use of such a topology.
• Mesh network: each node is connected to an arbitrary number of neighbours in such a fashion that there is at least one traversal from any node to any other.
• Fully connected network: each node is connected to every other node in the network.
• Tree network: nodes are bundled hierarchically. This is the natural topology for a larger Ethernet network with multiple switches and without redundant meshing.

The physical layout of the nodes in a network may not necessarily reverberate the network topology. As an example, with FDDI, the network topology is a ring, but the physical topology is ofttimes a star, because all neighboring connections can exist routed via a central concrete location. Physical layout is not completely irrelevant, even so, as common ducting and equipment locations tin can represent single points of failure due to problems like fires, power failures and flooding.

Overlay network [edit]

An overlay network is a virtual network that is congenital on top of another network. Nodes in the overlay network are connected by virtual or logical links. Each link corresponds to a path, perhaps through many physical links, in the underlying network. The topology of the overlay network may (and often does) differ from that of the underlying 1. For case, many peer-to-peer networks are overlay networks. They are organized every bit nodes of a virtual system of links that run on peak of the Internet.^[28]

Overlay networks take been around since the invention of networking when reckoner systems were connected over telephone lines using modems before any data network existed.

The most striking case of an overlay network is the Internet itself. The Cyberspace itself was initially built equally an overlay on the telephone network.^[28] Even today, each Internet node can communicate with near any other through an underlying mesh of sub-networks of wildly unlike topologies and technologies. Address resolution and routing are the means that let mapping of a fully continued IP overlay network to its underlying network.

Another example of an overlay network is a distributed hash tabular array, which maps keys to nodes in the network. In this example, the underlying network is an IP network, and the overlay network is a table (actually a map) indexed past keys.

Overlay networks have also been proposed as a way to improve Net routing, such equally through quality of service guarantees achieve higher-quality streaming media. Previous proposals such every bit IntServ, DiffServ, and IP Multicast have non seen wide credence largely because they require modification of all routers in the network.^{[ citation needed ]} On the other hand, an overlay network tin be incrementally deployed on cease-hosts running the overlay protocol software, without cooperation from Internet service providers. The overlay network has no control over how packets are routed in the underlying network between two overlay nodes, just information technology can control, for case, the sequence of overlay nodes that a message traverses before information technology reaches its destination.

For example, Akamai Technologies manages an overlay network that provides reliable, efficient content delivery (a kind of multicast). Bookish research includes finish arrangement multicast,^[29] resilient routing and quality of service studies, amidst others.

Network links [edit]

The transmission media (oft referred to in the literature as the physical medium) used to link devices to course a computer network include electrical cable, optical cobweb, and free space. In the OSI model, the software to handle the media is divers at layers one and 2 — the physical layer and the data link layer.

A widely adopted family that uses copper and cobweb media in local area network (LAN) applied science are collectively known every bit Ethernet. The media and protocol standards that enable communication between networked devices over Ethernet are defined by IEEE 802.3. Wireless LAN standards utilise radio waves, others use infrared signals equally a transmission medium. Power line communication uses a building's ability cabling to transmit information.

Wired [edit]

The following classes of wired technologies are used in estimator networking.

• Coaxial cablevision is widely used for cable television receiver systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for local area networks. Manual speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500 meg bits per second.^{[ citation needed ]}
• ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home wiring (coaxial cablevision, telephone lines and ability lines) to create a high-speed local area network.
• Twisted pair cabling is used for wired Ethernet and other standards. It typically consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that tin be utilized for both vocalization and data transmission. The apply of ii wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges from 2 Mbit/south to 10 Gbit/south. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). Each form comes in several category ratings, designed for employ in diverse scenarios.

2007 map showing submarine optical cobweb telecommunication cables around the world.

• An optical fiber is a glass fiber. It carries pulses of light that represent data via lasers and optical amplifiers. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are very depression transmission loss and immunity to electrical interference. Using dumbo wave division multiplexing, optical fibers can simultaneously behave multiple streams of information on different wavelengths of low-cal, which profoundly increases the rate that information tin be sent to up to trillions of bits per second. Optic fibers can be used for long runs of cablevision carrying very high data rates, and are used for undersea cables to interconnect continents. There are ii basic types of fiber optics, single-mode optical fiber (SMF) and multi-mode optical fiber (MMF). Single-way fiber has the reward of beingness able to sustain a coherent signal for dozens or even a hundred kilometers. Multimode fiber is cheaper to finish simply is limited to a few hundred or even only a few dozens of meters, depending on the information rate and cable grade.^[30]

Wireless [edit]

Computers are very often continued to networks using wireless links

Network connections can be established wirelessly using radio or other electromagnetic means of communication.

• Terrestrial microwave – Terrestrial microwave advice uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 40 miles (64 km) apart.
• Communications satellites – Satellites also communicate via microwave. The satellites are stationed in infinite, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and Television receiver signals.
• Cellular networks use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each surface area is served past a depression-power transceiver.
• Radio and spread spectrum technologies – Wireless LANs use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum engineering science to enable advice betwixt multiple devices in a limited surface area. IEEE 802.xi defines a common flavour of open-standards wireless radio-wave applied science known equally Wi-Fi.
• Free-infinite optical communication uses visible or invisible low-cal for communications. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices.
• Extending the Internet to interplanetary dimensions via radio waves and optical ways, the Interplanetary Internet.^[31]
• IP over Avian Carriers was a humorous April fool's Asking for Comments, issued as RFC 1149. It was implemented in real life in 2001.^[32]

The last two cases have a large round-trip delay time, which gives slow ii-way communication but doesn't prevent sending big amounts of information (they can have high throughput).

Network nodes [edit]

Apart from any physical transmission media, networks are built from additional basic system building blocks, such as network interface controllers (NICs), repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, modems, and firewalls. Whatever item piece of equipment will frequently contain multiple edifice blocks and so may perform multiple functions.

Network interfaces [edit]

An ATM network interface in the form of an accessory carte du jour. A lot of network interfaces are built-in.

A network interface controller (NIC) is computer hardware that connects the calculator to the network media and has the power to procedure depression-level network information. For example, the NIC may have a connector for accepting a cablevision, or an aeriform for wireless manual and reception, and the associated circuitry.

In Ethernet networks, each network interface controller has a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address—usually stored in the controller's permanent memory. To avoid address conflicts between network devices, the Plant of Electric and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) maintains and administers MAC address uniqueness. The size of an Ethernet MAC address is six octets. The three most meaning octets are reserved to identify NIC manufacturers. These manufacturers, using only their assigned prefixes, uniquely assign the three least-pregnant octets of every Ethernet interface they produce.

Repeaters and hubs [edit]

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network point, cleans it of unnecessary noise and regenerates information technology. The signal is retransmitted at a higher power level, or to the other side of obstruction so that the bespeak can cover longer distances without deposition. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. With fiber eyes, repeaters tin exist tens or even hundreds of kilometers apart.

Repeaters work on the concrete layer of the OSI model simply still require a pocket-size amount of time to regenerate the signal. This tin cause a propagation delay that affects network performance and may affect proper function. As a result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters used in a network, e.g., the Ethernet 5-four-3 dominion.

An Ethernet repeater with multiple ports is known as an Ethernet hub. In add-on to reconditioning and distributing network signals, a repeater hub assists with collision detection and fault isolation for the network. Hubs and repeaters in LANs have been largely obsoleted by modernistic network switches.

Bridges and switches [edit]

Network bridges and network switches are distinct from a hub in that they only forward frames to the ports involved in the advice whereas a hub forrard to all ports.^[33] Bridges but take ii ports but a switch tin can be idea of as a multi-port span. Switches normally have numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and for cascading additional switches.

Bridges and switches operate at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model and span traffic betwixt two or more than network segments to course a unmarried local network. Both are devices that forward frames of data between ports based on the destination MAC accost in each frame.^[34] They larn the clan of concrete ports to MAC addresses past examining the source addresses of received frames and only forward the frame when necessary. If an unknown destination MAC is targeted, the device broadcasts the request to all ports except the source, and discovers the location from the reply.

Bridges and switches divide the network's collision domain but maintain a single broadcast domain. Network partition through bridging and switching helps pause down a big, congested network into an aggregation of smaller, more than efficient networks.

Routers [edit]

A typical habitation or pocket-sized office router showing the ADSL telephone line and Ethernet network cable connections

A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing the addressing or routing information included in the parcel. The routing information is often processed in conjunction with the routing tabular array. A router uses its routing tabular array to determine where to forward packets and does not require broadcasting packets which is inefficient for very big networks.

Modems [edit]

Modems (modulator-demodulator) are used to connect network nodes via wire not originally designed for digital network traffic, or for wireless. To practice this 1 or more carrier signals are modulated by the digital signal to produce an analog signal that can be tailored to give the required backdrop for transmission. Early modems modulated audio signals sent over a standard phonation telephone line. Modems are notwithstanding ordinarily used for phone lines, using a digital subscriber line applied science and cable television systems using DOCSIS applied science.

Firewalls [edit]

A firewall is a network device or software for decision-making network security and access rules. Firewalls are inserted in connections between secure internal networks and potentially insecure external networks such as the Internet. Firewalls are typically configured to turn down access requests from unrecognized sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the abiding increase in cyber attacks.

Advice protocols [edit]

The TCP/IP model and its relation to common protocols used at different layers of the model.

Bulletin flows between two devices (A-B) at the four layers of the TCP/IP model in the presence of a router (R). Red flows are effective advice paths, blackness paths are across the actual network links.

A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information over a network. Advice protocols accept various characteristics. They may be connection-oriented or connectionless, they may use circuit mode or packet switching, and they may use hierarchical addressing or flat addressing.

In a protocol stack, frequently synthetic per the OSI model, communications functions are divided upward into protocol layers, where each layer leverages the services of the layer below it until the lowest layer controls the hardware that sends information across the media. The use of protocol layering is ubiquitous across the field of computer networking. An important example of a protocol stack is HTTP (the Www protocol) running over TCP over IP (the Cyberspace protocols) over IEEE 802.eleven (the Wi-Fi protocol). This stack is used between the wireless router and the home user'southward personal computer when the user is surfing the web.

There are many communication protocols, a few of which are described below.

Common protocols [edit]

Internet Protocol Suite [edit]

The Cyberspace Protocol Suite, also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern networking. Information technology offers connection-less and connection-oriented services over an inherently unreliable network traversed by datagram transmission using Internet protocol (IP). At its core, the protocol suite defines the addressing, identification, and routing specifications for Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) and for IPv6, the next generation of the protocol with a much enlarged addressing capability. The Internet Protocol Suite is the defining set of protocols for the Internet.^[35]

IEEE 802 [edit]

IEEE 802 is a family unit of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and metropolitan area networks. The consummate IEEE 802 protocol suite provides a diverse set up of networking capabilities. The protocols have a flat addressing scheme. They operate generally at layers i and 2 of the OSI model.

For example, MAC bridging (IEEE 802.1D) deals with the routing of Ethernet packets using a Spanning Tree Protocol. IEEE 802.1Q describes VLANs, and IEEE 802.1X defines a port-based Network Admission Control protocol, which forms the ground for the authentication mechanisms used in VLANs^[36] (but it is also found in WLANs^[37]) – it is what the habitation user sees when the user has to enter a "wireless admission cardinal".

Ethernet [edit]

Ethernet is a family of technologies used in wired LANs. It is described past a set of standards together chosen IEEE 802.3 published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

Wireless LAN [edit]

Wireless LAN based on the IEEE 802.xi standards, likewise widely known equally WLAN or WiFi, is probably the virtually well-known fellow member of the IEEE 802 protocol family for home users today. IEEE 802.11 shares many properties with wired Ethernet.

SONET/SDH [edit]

Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Bureaucracy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers. They were originally designed to transport circuit way communications from a variety of different sources, primarily to back up circuit-switched digital telephony. Even so, due to its protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features, SONET/SDH also was the obvious option for transporting Asynchronous Transfer Way (ATM) frames.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode [edit]

Asynchronous Transfer Manner (ATM) is a switching technique for telecommunication networks. It uses asynchronous fourth dimension-division multiplexing and encodes information into minor, fixed-sized cells. This differs from other protocols such as the Net Protocol Suite or Ethernet that use variable-sized packets or frames. ATM has similarities with both circuit and parcel switched networking. This makes information technology a good option for a network that must handle both traditional loftier-throughput data traffic, and real-fourth dimension, low-latency content such every bit vocalism and video. ATM uses a connexion-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must exist established between 2 endpoints before the actual data exchange begins.

ATM yet plays a office in the terminal mile, which is the connection between an Internet service provider and the home user.^{[38] [ needs update ]}

Cellular standards [edit]

There are a number of different digital cellular standards, including: Global Arrangement for Mobile Communications (GSM), General Bundle Radio Service (GPRS), cdmaOne, CDMA2000, Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Development (EDGE), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication (DECT), Digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA), and Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN).^[39]

Routing [edit]

Routing calculates good paths through a network for information to have. For case, from node ane to node 6 the best routes are likely to be one-8-7-6 or ane-eight-x-half dozen, every bit this has the thickest routes.

Routing is the procedure of selecting network paths to carry network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including circuit switching networks and packet switched networks.

In packet-switched networks, routing protocols direct package forwarding (the transit of logically addressed network packets from their source toward their ultimate destination) through intermediate nodes. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers tin too forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from the limited functioning. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables, which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the router'due south memory, is very important for efficient routing.

There are usually multiple routes that tin be taken, and to choose between them, unlike elements tin exist considered to make up one's mind which routes get installed into the routing tabular array, such equally (sorted by priority):

1. Prefix-Length: where longer subnet masks are preferred (contained if it is inside a routing protocol or over a different routing protocol)
2. Metric: where a lower metric/cost is preferred (but valid within one and the same routing protocol)
3. Authoritative distance: where a lower distance is preferred (only valid between dissimilar routing protocols)

Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. Multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple culling paths.

Routing, in a more narrow sense of the term, is ofttimes assorted with bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and that like addresses imply proximity within the network. Structured addresses permit a single routing table entry to represent the road to a group of devices. In large networks, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging). Routing has become the ascendant form of addressing on the Internet. Bridging is still widely used inside localized environments.

Geographic scale [edit]

Networks may be characterized by many backdrop or features, such equally physical capacity, organizational purpose, user authority, access rights, and others. Another distinct classification method is that of the physical extent or geographic scale.

Nanoscale network

A nanoscale communication network has primal components implemented at the nanoscale including message carriers and leverages physical principles that differ from macroscale communication mechanisms. Nanoscale communication extends advice to very small sensors and actuators such as those found in biological systems and as well tends to operate in environments that would exist likewise harsh for classical advice.^[40]

Personal expanse network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for advice amidst computers and dissimilar data technological devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters.^[41] A wired PAN is normally synthetic with USB and FireWire connections while technologies such as Bluetooth and infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN.

Local surface area network

A local expanse network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical expanse such equally a home, school, function building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each reckoner or device on the network is a node. Wired LANs are most likely based on Ethernet technology. Newer standards such every bit ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing wiring, such as coaxial cables, telephone lines, and power lines.^[42]

The defining characteristics of a LAN, in contrast to a broad surface area network (WAN), include higher data transfer rates, limited geographic range, and lack of reliance on leased lines to provide connectivity. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at information transfer rates up to 100 Gbit/s, standardized by IEEE in 2010.^[43] Currently, 400 Gbit/due south Ethernet is being developed.

A LAN can be connected to a WAN using a router.

Home expanse network

A habitation expanse network (HAN) is a residential LAN used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, unremarkably a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important office is the sharing of Internet access, frequently a broadband service through a cable Television set or digital subscriber line (DSL) provider.

Storage area network

A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated, block-level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such every bit disk arrays, record libraries, and optical jukeboxes, attainable to servers and then that the devices appear similar locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are mostly not accessible through the local area network by other devices. The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early on 2000s to levels allowing wider adoption beyond both enterprise and pocket-sized to medium-sized business environments.

Campus area network

A campus area network (Can) is fabricated up of an interconnection of LANs within a limited geographical area. The networking equipment (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling, etc.) are almost entirely endemic by the campus tenant/owner (an enterprise, university, government, etc.).

For case, a university campus network is probable to link a multifariousness of campus buildings to connect academic colleges or departments, the library, and student residence halls.

Courage network

A backbone network is office of a calculator network infrastructure that provides a path for the exchange of data between different LANs or subnetworks. A backbone can necktie together diverse networks within the aforementioned building, beyond unlike buildings, or over a wide area.

For example, a large company might implement a backbone network to connect departments that are located around the earth. The equipment that ties together the departmental networks constitutes the network backbone. When designing a network backbone, network performance and network congestion are critical factors to take into account. Normally, the courage network's capacity is greater than that of the private networks connected to information technology.

Another example of a courage network is the Internet backbone, which is a massive, global system of fiber-optic cable and optical networking that deport the majority of data between broad area networks (WANs), metro, regional, national and transoceanic networks.

Metropolitan area network

A metropolitan expanse network (Man) is a large computer network that usually spans a metropolis or a big campus.

Broad area network

A broad area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a big geographic area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances. A WAN uses a communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and airwaves. A WAN often makes use of manual facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally office at the lower iii layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

Enterprise individual network

An enterprise private network is a network that a single organisation builds to interconnect its office locations (e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops) and so they can share reckoner resource.

Virtual private network

A virtual private network (VPN) is an overlay network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (east.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the instance. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not take explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, tin be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with stiff security features.

VPN may have best-try performance or may accept a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more than complex than point-to-point.

Global area network

A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The primal challenge in mobile communications is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.^[44]

Organizational telescopic [edit]

Networks are typically managed past the organizations that own them. Private enterprise networks may use a combination of intranets and extranets. They may also provide network access to the Internet, which has no single possessor and permits virtually unlimited global connectivity.

Intranet [edit]

An intranet is a set of networks that are under the command of a single administrative entity. The intranet uses the IP protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications. The authoritative entity limits the use of the intranet to its authorized users. Virtually commonly, an intranet is the internal LAN of an organization. A large intranet typically has at least ane web server to provide users with organizational information. An intranet is too annihilation behind the router on a local area network.

[edit]

An extranet is a network that is besides under the administrative control of a single organization but supports a limited connexion to a specific external network. For example, an system may provide access to some aspects of its intranet to share data with its business organisation partners or customers. These other entities are not necessarily trusted from a security standpoint. Network connection to an extranet is often, but not always, implemented via WAN engineering science.

Cyberspace [edit]

An internetwork is the connection of multiple unlike types of computer networks to form a single reckoner network by layering on peak of the dissimilar networking software and connecting them together using routers.

Partial map of the Internet, based on the January 15, 2005 data constitute on opte.org Archived 2005-01-15 at the Wayback Machine. Each line is drawn between two nodes, representing 2 IP addresses. The length of the lines is indicative of the delay between those two nodes. This graph represents less than 30% of the Class C networks reachable.

The Internet is the largest case of internetwork. It is a global arrangement of interconnected governmental, bookish, corporate, public, and private computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is the successor of the Advanced Enquiry Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the United States Department of Defence force. The Internet utilizes copper communications and the optical networking backbone to enable the Globe Wide Web (WWW), the Net of Things, video transfer, and a wide range of information services.

Participants on the Net employ a various array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing organization (IP addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information nearly the reachability of their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of manual paths.

Darknet [edit]

A darknet is an overlay network, typically running on the Internet, that is only accessible through specialized software. A darknet is an anonymizing network where connections are made only between trusted peers — sometimes called "friends" (F2F)^[45] — using non-standard protocols and ports.

Darknets are singled-out from other distributed peer-to-peer networks as sharing is anonymous (that is, IP addresses are not publicly shared), and therefore users can communicate with little fright of governmental or corporate interference.^[46]

Network service [edit]

Network services are applications hosted by servers on a computer network, to provide some functionality for members or users of the network, or to help the network itself to operate.

The World Wide Spider web, Email,^[47] printing and network file sharing are examples of well-known network services. Network services such as DNS (Domain Name System) requite names for IP and MAC addresses (people recall names like "nm.lan" better than numbers like "210.121.67.18"),^[48] and DHCP to ensure that the equipment on the network has a valid IP address.^[49]

Services are usually based on a service protocol that defines the format and sequencing of letters betwixt clients and servers of that network service.

Network performance [edit]

Bandwidth [edit]

Bandwidth in flake/s may refer to consumed bandwidth, corresponding to achieved throughput or goodput, i.due east., the average rate of successful data transfer through a communication path. The throughput is affected by technologies such as bandwidth shaping, bandwidth direction, bandwidth throttling, bandwidth cap, bandwidth allocation (for case bandwidth allocation protocol and dynamic bandwidth allotment), etc. A chip stream'due south bandwidth is proportional to the average consumed signal bandwidth in hertz (the average spectral bandwidth of the analog signal representing the scrap stream) during a studied time interval.

Network filibuster [edit]

Network delay is a design and functioning characteristic of a telecommunications network. It specifies the latency for a scrap of data to travel across the network from one communication endpoint to another. Information technology is typically measured in multiples or fractions of a second. Delay may differ slightly, depending on the location of the specific pair of communicating endpoints. Engineers usually report both the maximum and average delay, and they divide the delay into several parts:

• Processing filibuster – time it takes a router to process the parcel header
• Queuing delay – time the bundle spends in routing queues
• Transmission filibuster – fourth dimension information technology takes to push the packet'south bits onto the link
• Propagation filibuster – fourth dimension for a signal to propagate through the media

A certain minimum level of delay is experienced past signals due to the time it takes to transmit a bundle serially through a link. This delay is extended by more variable levels of delay due to network congestion. IP network delays tin range from a few milliseconds to several hundred milliseconds.

Quality of service [edit]

Depending on the installation requirements, network performance is usually measured by the quality of service of a telecommunications production. The parameters that affect this typically can include throughput, jitter, flake error rate and latency.

The following list gives examples of network performance measures for a circuit-switched network and ane type of packet-switched network, viz. ATM:

• Circuit-switched networks: In circuit switched networks, network performance is synonymous with the grade of service. The number of rejected calls is a measure of how well the network is performing under heavy traffic loads.^[50] Other types of performance measures tin can include the level of noise and echo.
• ATM: In an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network, performance can be measured by line rate, quality of service (QoS), data throughput, connect time, stability, applied science, modulation technique, and modem enhancements.^{[51] [ verification needed ] [ full citation needed ]}

In that location are many ways to measure out the functioning of a network, equally each network is different in nature and design. Functioning can too be modeled instead of measured. For instance, state transition diagrams are often used to model queuing performance in a excursion-switched network. The network planner uses these diagrams to analyze how the network performs in each land, ensuring that the network is optimally designed.^[52]

Network congestion [edit]

Network congestion occurs when a link or node is subjected to a greater data load than it is rated for, resulting in a deterioration of its quality of service. When networks are congested and queues go too total, packets accept to be discarded, then networks rely on re-manual. Typical furnishings of congestion include queueing delay, packet loss or the blocking of new connections. A consequence of these latter ii is that incremental increases in offered load pb either to only a small increment in the network throughput or to a reduction in network throughput.

Network protocols that employ aggressive retransmissions to compensate for packet loss tend to keep systems in a state of network congestion—even afterwards the initial load is reduced to a level that would not normally induce network congestion. Thus, networks using these protocols tin can showroom ii stable states under the same level of load. The stable land with low throughput is known equally congestive collapse.

Modern networks use congestion control, congestion avoidance and traffic command techniques to effort to avoid congestion plummet (i.e. endpoints typically slow down or sometimes even finish manual entirely when the network is congested). These techniques include: exponential backoff in protocols such as 802.eleven's CSMA/CA and the original Ethernet, window reduction in TCP, and off-white queueing in devices such equally routers. Another method to avoid the negative effects of network congestion is implementing priority schemes and then that some packets are transmitted with higher priority than others. Priority schemes exercise not solve network congestion past themselves, merely they help to convalesce the effects of congestion for some services. An instance of this is 802.1p. A 3rd method to avoid network congestion is the explicit allocation of network resource to specific flows. One example of this is the utilize of Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) in the ITU-T Thou.hn standard, which provides high-speed (up to 1 Gbit/s) Local area networking over existing dwelling wires (ability lines, phone lines and coaxial cables).

For the Net, RFC 2914 addresses the subject of congestion control in detail.

Network resilience [edit]

Network resilience is "the ability to provide and maintain an adequate level of service in the face up of faults and challenges to normal operation."^[53]

Security [edit]

Reckoner networks are also used by security hackers to deploy computer viruses or computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to preclude these devices from accessing the network via a denial-of-service attack.

Network security [edit]

Network Security consists of provisions and policies adopted by the network ambassador to prevent and monitor unauthorized admission, misuse, modification, or deprival of the figurer network and its network-accessible resource.^[54] Network security is the potency of access to information in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator. Users are assigned an ID and password that allows them admission to information and programs within their authority. Network security is used on a diversity of computer networks, both public and private, to secure daily transactions and communications amid businesses, government agencies, and individuals.

Network surveillance [edit]

Network surveillance is the monitoring of information beingness transferred over calculator networks such equally the Internet. The monitoring is often done surreptitiously and may be washed past or at the bidding of governments, past corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal and may or may not require authorization from a court or other independent agency.

Computer and network surveillance programs are widespread today, and almost all Internet traffic is or could potentially be monitored for clues to illegal activity.

Surveillance is very useful to governments and law enforcement to maintain social control, recognize and monitor threats, and prevent/investigate criminal activity. With the advent of programs such as the Total Data Awareness program, technologies such as high-speed surveillance computers and biometrics software, and laws such every bit the Communications Help For Police force Enforcement Act, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of citizens.^[55]

However, many ceremonious rights and privacy groups—such equally Reporters Without Borders, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and the American Civil Liberties Union—have expressed business organisation that increasing surveillance of citizens may lead to a mass surveillance gild, with limited political and personal freedoms. Fears such as this have led to numerous lawsuits such as Hepting v. AT&T.^{[55] [56]} The hacktivist group Bearding has hacked into government websites in protest of what it considers "draconian surveillance".^{[57] [58]}

Stop to end encryption [edit]

Finish-to-end encryption (E2EE) is a digital communications paradigm of uninterrupted protection of data traveling between ii communicating parties. It involves the originating political party encrypting data so only the intended recipient can decrypt information technology, with no dependency on third parties. Stop-to-terminate encryption prevents intermediaries, such as Internet providers or application service providers, from discovering or tampering with communications. End-to-end encryption generally protects both confidentiality and integrity.

Examples of end-to-end encryption include HTTPS for web traffic, PGP for e-mail, OTR for instant messaging, ZRTP for telephony, and TETRA for radio.

Typical server-based communications systems exercise not include end-to-stop encryption. These systems can only guarantee the protection of communications betwixt clients and servers, not betwixt the communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are Google Talk, Yahoo Messenger, Facebook, and Dropbox. Some such systems, for example, LavaBit and SecretInk, have fifty-fifty described themselves as offering "end-to-end" encryption when they do not. Some systems that unremarkably offer end-to-end encryption take turned out to contain a back door that subverts negotiation of the encryption key between the communicating parties, for example Skype or Hushmail.

The stop-to-terminate encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the endpoints of the communication themselves, such every bit the technical exploitation of clients, poor quality random number generators, or cardinal escrow. E2EE likewise does not address traffic assay, which relates to things such every bit the identities of the endpoints and the times and quantities of messages that are sent.

SSL/TLS [edit]

The introduction and rapid growth of e-commerce on the World Wide Web in the mid-1990s fabricated information technology obvious that some form of authentication and encryption was needed. Netscape took the showtime shot at a new standard. At the time, the dominant web browser was Netscape Navigator. Netscape created a standard called secure socket layer (SSL). SSL requires a server with a certificate. When a client requests access to an SSL-secured server, the server sends a copy of the certificate to the client. The SSL client checks this document (all web browsers come with an exhaustive list of CA root certificates preloaded), and if the certificate checks out, the server is authenticated and the client negotiates a symmetric-key zero for use in the session. The session is now in a very secure encrypted tunnel betwixt the SSL server and the SSL client.^[30]

Views of networks [edit]

Users and network administrators typically have dissimilar views of their networks. Users can share printers and some servers from a workgroup, which ordinarily means they are in the same geographic location and are on the same LAN, whereas a Network Administrator is responsible to keep that network up and running. A community of involvement has less of a connectedness of being in a local surface area and should be idea of every bit a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers, and mayhap likewise communicate via peer-to-peer technologies.

Network administrators can meet networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The physical perspective involves geographic locations, concrete cabling, and the network elements (e.g., routers, bridges and awarding layer gateways) that interconnect via the manual media. Logical networks, called, in the TCP/IP compages, subnets, map onto one or more transmission media. For case, a common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set up of LAN cables in each building appear to be a mutual subnet, using virtual LAN (VLAN) technology.

Both users and administrators are aware, to varying extents, of the trust and telescopic characteristics of a network. Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an intranet is a customs of interest under private administration usually by an enterprise, and is only accessible by authorized users (due east.one thousand. employees).^[59] Intranets do not take to be connected to the Internet, but by and large have a express connectedness. An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users outside of the intranet (due east.g. business partners, customers).^[59]

Unofficially, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering science viewpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, that share the registered IP accost space and exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the Border Gateway Protocol. Typically, the human being-readable names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the Domain Name Organisation (DNS).

Over the Internet, there can be business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C) and consumer-to-consumer (C2C) communications. When coin or sensitive data is exchanged, the communications are apt to be protected past some form of communications security mechanism. Intranets and extranets can exist securely superimposed onto the Net, without any access past general Cyberspace users and administrators, using secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) engineering science.

Journals and newsletters [edit]

• Open Computer Science (open admission journal)

Run across also [edit]

• Comparing of network diagram software
• Cyberspace
• History of the Net
• Information Age
• Information revolution
• ISO/IEC 11801 – International standard for electrical and optical cables
• Minimum-Pairs Protocol
• Network simulation
• Network planning and design
• Network traffic control

References [edit]

1. ^ Corbató, F. J.; et al. (1963). The Compatible Time-Sharing System A Programmer's Guide] (PDF). MIT Press. ISBN978-0-262-03008-3. Shortly after the first paper on time-shared computers past C. Strachey at the June 1959 UNESCO Information Processing briefing, H. Thousand. Teager and J. McCarthy at MIT delivered an unpublished paper "Time-shared Program Testing" at the August 1959 ACM Coming together.
2. ^ "Calculator Pioneers - Christopher Strachey". history.calculator.org . Retrieved 2020-01-23 .
3. ^ "Reminiscences on the Theory of Time-Sharing". jmc.stanford.edu . Retrieved 2020-01-23 .
4. ^ "Computer - Time-sharing and minicomputers". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 2020-01-23 .
5. ^ Gillies, James M.; Gillies, James; Gillies, James and Cailliau Robert; Cailliau, R. (2000). How the Web was Born: The Story of the World Wide Web . Oxford University Printing. pp. 13. ISBN978-0-xix-286207-v.
6. ^ Kitova, O. "Kitov Anatoliy Ivanovich. Russian Virtual Computer Museum". computer-museum.ru. Translated by Alexander Nitusov. Retrieved 2021-ten-eleven .
7. ^ Peters, Benjamin (25 March 2016). How Not to Network a Nation: The Uneasy History of the Soviet Internet. ISBN978-0262034180.
8. ^ Isaacson, Walter (2014). The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution. Simon and Schuster. pp. 237–246. ISBN9781476708690.
9. ^ "NIHF Inductee Paul Baran, Who Invented Bundle Switching". National Inventors Hall of Fame. Retrieved 2022-02-12 .
10. ^ "NIHF Inductee Donald Davies, Who Invented Packet Switching". National Inventors Hall of Fame. Retrieved 2022-02-12 .
11. ^ ^{a b} Roberts, Lawrence G. (November 1978). "The evolution of parcel switching" (PDF). Proceedings of the IEEE. 66 (11): 1307–thirteen. doi:10.1109/PROC.1978.11141. S2CID 26876676. Both Paul Baran and Donald Davies in their original papers anticipated the use of T1 trunks
12. ^ Cambell-Kelly, Martin (1987). "Data Communications at the National Concrete Laboratory (1965-1975)". Annals of the History of Calculating. 9 (iii/4): 221–247. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1987.10023. S2CID 8172150. Transmission of packets of data over the high-speed lines
13. ^ Guardian Staff (2013-06-25). "Internet pioneers airbrushed from history". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2020-07-31 . This was the get-go digital local network in the earth to use packet switching and high-speed links.
14. ^ Chris Sutton. "Internet Began 35 Years Ago at UCLA with First Message E'er Sent Betwixt Two Computers". UCLA. Archived from the original on 2008-03-08.
15. ^ Gillies, James; Cailliau, Robert (2000). How the Spider web was Born: The Story of the Earth Wide Spider web . Oxford University Printing. p. 25. ISBN0192862073.
16. ^ C. Hempstead; W. Worthington (2005). Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology. Routledge. ISBN9781135455514.
17. ^ Alarcia, Thou.; Herrera, South. (1974). "C.T.N.E.'s PACKET SWITCHING NETWORK. ITS APPLICATIONS". Proceedings of 2nd ICCC 74. pp. 163–170. Archived from the original on 2021-04-14.
18. ^ Cuenca, L. (1980). "A PUBLIC PACKET SWITCHING Data COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK: Eight YEARS OF OPERATING Feel". Conference Record of ICC fourscore. IEEE. pp. 39.three.1–39.iii.five. Archived from the original on 2021-04-xiv.
19. ^ Lavandera, Luis (1980). "ARCHITECTURE, PROTOCOLS AND PERFORMANCE OF RETD". Briefing Tape of ICC 80. IEEE. pp. 28.four.1–28.4.v. Archived from the original on 2021-04-14.
20. ^ Quango, National Research; Sciences, Partitioning on Engineering and Concrete; Lath, Computer Science and Telecommunications; Applications, Committee on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and; Commission, NII 2000 Steering (1998-02-05). The Unpredictable Certainty: White Papers. National Academies Printing. ISBN978-0-309-17414-5.
21. ^ Bennett, Richard (September 2009). "Designed for Modify: End-to-End Arguments, Internet Innovation, and the Internet Neutrality Debate" (PDF). Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. p. 11. Retrieved 2017-09-11 .
22. ^ Robert 1000. Metcalfe; David R. Boggs (July 1976). "Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks". Communications of the ACM. nineteen (five): 395–404. doi:10.1145/360248.360253. S2CID 429216. Archived from the original on 2007-08-07.
23. ^ Cerf, Vinton; Dalal, Yogen; Sunshine, Carl (December 1974), RFC 675, Specification of Internet Transmission Control Protocol
24. ^ Pelkey, James L. (2007). "6.ix – Metcalfe Joins the Systems Development Sectionalization of Xerox 1975-1978". Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications, 1968-1988 . Retrieved 2019-09-05 .
25. ^ ^{a b} Spurgeon, Charles E. (2000). Ethernet The Definitive Guide . O'Reilly & Associates. ISBN1-56592-660-9.
26. ^ "Introduction to Ethernet Technologies". world wide web.wband.com. WideBand Products. Retrieved 2018-04-09 .
27. ^ Pelkey, James L. (2007). "Yogen Dalal". Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Figurer Communications, 1968-1988 . Retrieved 2019-09-05 .
28. ^ ^{a b} D. Andersen; H. Balakrishnan; M. Kaashoek; R. Morris (Oct 2001), Resilient Overlay Networks, Clan for Computing Mechanism, retrieved 2011-xi-12
29. ^ "Terminate System Multicast". project web site. Carnegie Mellon University. Archived from the original on 2005-02-21. Retrieved 2013-05-25 .
30. ^ ^{a b} Meyers, Mike (2012). CompTIA Network+ test guide : (Exam N10-005) (fifth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN9780071789226. OCLC 748332969.
31. ^ A. Hooke (September 2000), Interplanetary Internet (PDF), Third Annual International Symposium on Avant-garde Radio Technologies, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-13, retrieved 2011-11-12
32. ^ "Bergen Linux User Grouping's CPIP Implementation". Blug.linux.no. Retrieved 2014-03-01 .
33. ^ Bradley Mitchell. "bridge – network bridges". About.com. Archived from the original on 2008-03-28.
34. ^ "Ascertain switch". webopedia. September 1996. Retrieved 2008-04-08 .
35. ^ Andrew Southward. Tannenbaum, Computer Networks, 4th Edition, Prentice Hall (2003)
36. ^ IEEE 802.1X 7.1.three Connectivity to unauthenticated systems
37. ^ IEEE 802.11 iv.2.v Interaction with other IEEE 802 layers
38. ^ Martin, Thomas. "Pattern Principles for DSL-Based Access Solutions" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-22.
39. ^ Paetsch, Michael (1993). The evolution of mobile communications in the The states and Europe: Regulation, engineering science, and markets. Boston, London: Artech House. ISBN978-0-8900-6688-ane.
40. ^ Bush, South. F. (2010). Nanoscale Communication Networks. Artech House. ISBN978-1-60807-003-9.
41. ^ Margaret Rouse. "personal expanse network (PAN)". TechTarget . Retrieved 2011-01-29 .
42. ^ "New global standard for fully networked abode". ITU-T Newslog. ITU. 2008-12-12. Archived from the original on 2009-02-21. Retrieved 2011-11-12 .
43. ^ "IEEE P802.3ba 40Gb/s and 100Gb/southward Ethernet Task Force". IEEE 802.three ETHERNET WORKING GROUP . Retrieved 2011-11-12 .
44. ^ "IEEE 802.xx Mission and Project Scope". IEEE 802.20 — Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) . Retrieved 2011-11-12 .
45. ^ Mansfield-Devine, Steve (December 2009). "Darknets". Estimator Fraud & Security. 2009 (12): 4–half dozen. doi:x.1016/S1361-3723(09)70150-2.
46. ^ Wood, Jessica (2010). "The Darknet: A Digital Copyright Revolution" (PDF). Richmond Journal of Police and Technology. sixteen (4). Retrieved 2011-10-25 .
47. ^ RFC 5321, "Simple Mail Transfer Protocol", J. Klensin (October 2008)
48. ^ RFC 1035, "Domain names – Implementation and Specification", P. Mockapetris (November 1987)
49. ^ Peterson, 50.L.; Davie, B.S. (2011). Figurer Networks: A Systems Approach (5th ed.). Elsevier. p. 372. ISBN978-0-1238-5060-7.
50. ^ ITU-D Study Group 2 (June 2006). Teletraffic Engineering Handbook (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-01-11.
51. ^ Telecommunications Magazine Online, Americas January 2003, Event Highlights, Online Exclusive: Broadband Access Maximum Performance, Retrieved on February 13, 2005.
52. ^ "State Transition Diagrams". Archived from the original on 2003-10-fifteen. Retrieved 2003-07-13 .
53. ^ "Definitions: Resilience". ResiliNets Enquiry Initiative. Retrieved 2011-11-12 .
54. ^ Simmonds, A; Sandilands, P; van Ekert, L (2004). An Ontology for Network Security Attack. Lecture Notes in Informatics. Vol. 3285. pp. 317–323. doi:10.1007/978-iii-540-30176-9_41. ISBN978-three-540-23659-vii. S2CID 2204780.
55. ^ ^{a b} "Is the U.S. Turning Into a Surveillance Order?". American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved 2009-03-xiii .
56. ^ Jay Stanley; Barry Steinhardt (January 2003). "Bigger Monster, Weaker Bondage: The Growth of an American Surveillance Lodge" (PDF). American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved 2009-03-thirteen .
57. ^ Emil Protalinski (2012-04-07). "Anonymous hacks UK government sites over 'draconian surveillance'". ZDNet . Retrieved 12 March 2013.
58. ^ James Ball (2012-04-20). "Hacktivists in the frontline battle for the internet". The Guardian . Retrieved 2012-06-17 .
59. ^ ^{a b} RFC 2547, "BGP/MPLS VPNs", Eastward. Rosen; Y. Rekhter (March 1999)

 This article incorporates public domain cloth from the General Services Administration document: "Federal Standard 1037C".

Farther reading [edit]

• Shelly, Gary, et al. "Discovering Computers" 2003 Edition.
• Wendell Odom, Rus Healy, Denise Donohue. (2010) CCIE Routing and Switching. Indianapolis, IN: Cisco Printing
• Kurose James F and Keith Due west. Ross: Computer Networking: A Summit-Downwards Approach Featuring the Net, Pearson Teaching 2005.
• William Stallings, Computer Networking with Internet Protocols and Technology, Pearson Education 2004.
• Important publications in figurer networks
• Network Communication Architecture and Protocols: OSI Network Architecture vii Layers Model
• Dimitri Bertsekas, and Robert Gallager, "Information Networks," Prentice Hall, 1992.

External links [edit]

• Networking at Curlie
• IEEE Ethernet manufacturer information
• A computer networking acronym guide

ricebeareseser.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network

Share this post